Lessons from the Global Policy Lab

Part 8: Multiple matching

You are going to read comments from five university students who participated in an international policy programme. For questions 47–56, choose from the students A–E. The students may be chosen more than once.

Lessons from the Global Policy Lab

A — Leila

My team examined how international organisations obtain reliable information during humanitarian emergencies. I had assumed that documenting violations was mainly a matter of interviewing witnesses and recording their statements. However, access to affected communities was frequently restricted, so investigators could not always confirm what had happened. Even when witnesses were available, differences between their accounts made verification difficult.

The most important lesson was that documenting an allegation is not the same as deciding who is responsible. Investigators must gather evidence impartially before any individual or organisation is publicly blamed. I initially found this caution frustrating because the available reports appeared convincing. I eventually understood that promoting accountability requires credible mechanisms rather than immediate accusations. If the evidence is weak, even a justified allegation can be challenged and the entire investigation may lose credibility. By the end of the programme, I had become much more aware of the distinction between recording possible violations and reaching a legally or politically defensible conclusion.

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B — Rafael

I worked on the language used in a proposed international agreement. The experience showed me that apparently minor vocabulary choices can determine whether delegations support or reject a proposal. At one point, our draft stated that member states would “guarantee” unrestricted access for international observers. Several representatives objected because they believed the verb created an obligation they could not realistically fulfil. We replaced it with a commitment to “facilitate” access while retaining safeguards against deliberate obstruction. The objective remained intact, but the revised wording made conditional support possible.

Another difficulty involved expressions that different delegations interpreted in different ways. Some understood “immediate action” to mean intervention within hours, whereas others thought it referred more generally to action taken without unnecessary delay. Neither interpretation was unreasonable, but the disagreement nearly prevented a compromise. I came to appreciate that diplomatic language is not necessarily vague because delegates lack ideas. Sometimes careful wording is required to identify common ground without concealing genuine differences.

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C — Maya

I joined the programme because I wanted to practise public speaking, so I was disappointed when I was assigned to the implementation team. We worked behind the scenes, converting general recommendations into timetables, responsibilities and measurable outcomes. At first, the role seemed administrative and far removed from the important policy discussions taking place elsewhere.

That impression changed when several ambitious proposals reached us without any explanation of who would carry them out or how their success would be assessed. A resolution may attract unanimous support, but it achieves little unless institutions are assigned specific responsibilities. Our team introduced reporting deadlines, identified which organisations would provide funding and designed a review process. The work was less visible than delivering an opening speech, yet I discovered that it suited me better. I enjoyed turning broad promises into practical steps and examining whether cooperation continued after the initial enthusiasm had disappeared. What I had regarded as a secondary assignment eventually became the central part of my experience.

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D — Thomas

My research group investigated how small states participate in international affairs. I chose Andorra because I had previously thought of it principally as a destination for skiing, shopping and thermal spas. Studying its history completely changed that superficial impression. Its political system developed from agreements between competing rulers, including the Bishop of Urgell and the Count of Foix. Instead of being absorbed by a more powerful neighbour, the territory maintained its independence by balancing external interests.

I was particularly struck by the survival of Catalan language and culture. Andorra has undergone extensive economic and political change, but its historical identity remains visible in its institutions and Romanesque-style churches. The research also challenged my assumption that influence depends on population size or military strength. Smaller countries can promote cooperation, offer mediation and draw attention to issues that larger states may overlook. I finished the project convinced that historical experience can give a small state a distinctive and valuable role in diplomacy.

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E — Nadia

As committee chair, I was responsible for organising debate without promoting my own position. The most difficult moments occurred when delegates repeated the same arguments instead of responding to one another. Initially, I allowed these exchanges to continue because I did not want to appear impatient or interfere with the discussion. Looking back, I should have invited the delegates to clarify their main points much sooner. Earlier intervention might have prevented frustration from developing.

Nevertheless, I learned that open disagreement is not necessarily evidence of failed diplomacy. Delegates who establish firm limits may simply be giving an honest account of what they are authorised to accept. That information can be more useful than vague expressions of solidarity. Once the committee understood which positions were genuinely incompatible, it could concentrate on areas where compromise remained possible. My responsibility was not to eliminate disagreement but to ensure that it became productive. Effective chairing therefore required impartiality, careful listening and the confidence to intervene when the discussion ceased to make progress.

Questions

Which student:

47. discovered that less visible work was more suitable for them than speaking in public?

48. describes changing the language of a proposal without abandoning its original aim?

49. mentions that restricted access made it difficult to confirm what had occurred?

50. says that research changed their opinion about the international importance of a small country?

51. believes that openly stating disagreement can contribute to effective negotiations?

52. was initially dissatisfied with an assignment that later became the most significant part of their experience?

53. expresses surprise that a cultural identity has endured despite major changes?

54. wishes they had taken action at an earlier stage of a discussion?

55. emphasises the difference between recording evidence and determining responsibility?

56. describes a disagreement caused by contrasting interpretations of the same expression?

How Andorra Survived

Part 7: Gapped text

You are going to read an article about the historical development of Andorra. Six extracts have been removed from the text. Choose from extracts A–G the one which fits each gap (41–46). There is one extra extract which you do not need to use.

How Andorra Survived

At first sight, Andorra’s continued existence seems historically improbable. The country occupies a small mountainous territory between France and Spain, two states whose rulers repeatedly expanded their influence across Europe. Andorra possessed neither a powerful army nor abundant natural resources with which to defend itself. Nevertheless, it avoided being absorbed by either neighbour and eventually developed into a modern independent state.

The origins of this unusual political situation are difficult to nail down. Medieval documents associate the territory with several rulers, religious institutions and local families. Some accounts emphasise grants supposedly made during the reign of Charlemagne, whereas others focus on agreements concluded much later. The surviving evidence is incomplete and sometimes allows for several interpretations. (41) ______ By the late thirteenth century, neither side had been able to establish complete control. Continued squabbling threatened the stability of the region, making a negotiated solution increasingly necessary.

The opposing authorities eventually concluded two agreements known as the pareatges. These recognised that authority would be shared by the Bishop of Urgell and the Count of Foix. Each co-prince received certain rights, while neither was permitted to govern the territory independently. (42) ______ That political framework proved remarkably durable. Over time, the French rights passed from the Count of Foix to the French Crown. After the French Revolution, they eventually became associated with the French head of state.

Consequently, Andorra’s present co-princes are the Bishop of Urgell and the President of France—an arrangement that links a medieval religious office with a modern republic. This institutional continuity is frequently presented as evidence that Andorra has remained largely unchanged for centuries. (43) ______ Even so, the basic principle of shared authority survived. It provided a stable political foundation while allowing the country’s social and economic organisation to evolve gradually.

One advantage of the co-principality was that it discouraged either neighbouring power from simply taking possession of the territory. Any attempt to pinch Andorran land risked provoking the other co-prince. The arrangement therefore provided the valleys with a degree of protection that their inhabitants could not have secured through military strength alone. (44) ______ Nevertheless, restraint alone did not guarantee Andorra’s survival. Its leaders also had to respond carefully to changes taking place beyond the Pyrenees.

Treaties, revolutions and changes of government could alter the position of one of the co-princes. Andorran representatives therefore became skilled at reaffirming old agreements while avoiding actions that might cause a neighbouring state to question the country’s special status.

Modernity created a different kind of challenge. For centuries, geographical isolation had limited Andorra’s economic development as well as protecting it from external interference. Once improved roads connected the valleys more closely to France and Spain, the country could no longer depend on isolation as its principal defence. (45) ______ These developments brought prosperity, but they also made political reform increasingly necessary. The institutions inherited from the medieval period were no longer sufficient for a society whose population, international connections and economy had expanded considerably.

In 1993, voters approved a constitution that established Andorra as a sovereign parliamentary democracy. The constitution defined the powers of the government and legislature while preserving the co-princes as joint heads of state. In the same year, Andorra joined the United Nations and gained wider international recognition. (46) ______ Andorra’s survival cannot therefore be attributed to a single ruler, treaty or geographical advantage.

Instead, its continued independence resulted from the interaction of difficult terrain, competing external powers, carefully maintained agreements and a willingness to undergo political change when older institutions were no longer sufficient. What began as a practical medieval compromise gradually became the foundation of a modern state.

Missing extracts

A

In reality, everyday life and political participation changed considerably. For much of its history, Andorra was a poor rural society, and its institutions were far less democratic than they are today.

B

This transformation modernised the state without completely rejecting its historical foundations. The co-princes retained a largely ceremonial role, while political authority became centred on elected institutions.

C

This uncertainty has encouraged the creation of attractive legends. What can be established, however, is that the Bishop of Urgell and the lords controlling neighbouring territories maintained competing claims over the valleys.

D

During the twentieth century, the population expanded and the economy underwent a dramatic transformation. Tourism, banking and commerce replaced agriculture as the principal sources of income.

E

The Pyrenees undoubtedly made invasion and administration more difficult. However, many other isolated European territories were incorporated into larger states despite possessing equally formidable natural defences.

F

The settlement was primarily a practical solution to a local dispute. By obliging both sides to cooperate, it prevented either co-prince from becoming the territory’s sole ruler.

G

This protection was reinforced by a tradition of neutrality. When conflicts broke out in surrounding regions, Andorra generally avoided direct involvement because it could neither maintain a large army nor conscript enough men to resist a major power.

The Future of Tourism in Andorra

Part 6: Cross-text multiple matching

You are going to read four commentators’ views on how tourism in Andorra should be developed. For questions 37–40, choose from the commentators A–D. The commentators may be chosen more than once.

The Future of Tourism in Andorra

Commentator A

Andorra’s tourism industry has long depended on its ski slopes and its reputation as a commercial hub. Both remain economically important, but presenting the country almost exclusively as a winter shopping destination seriously underestimates what it can offer. A coordinated national campaign should promote its hiking trails, breathtaking landscapes, thermal spas and Romanesque-style churches.

International sporting competitions, including World Cup events, can contribute to this strategy, provided that they are connected to longer-term programmes which benefit local businesses throughout the year. Better public transport would also allow visitors to explore attractions outside Andorra la Vella. Naturally, environmental limits must be respected, particularly in mountain areas. Nevertheless, careful planning should make greater geographical and seasonal diversification possible. Since the national tourism board has access to the necessary research and financial resources, it should take the leading role in presenting a coherent image of the country.

Commentator B

The assumption that Andorra needs a constantly increasing number of tourists should be questioned. During the busiest periods, roads become congested, public services face additional pressure and some communities receive little benefit from the crowds passing through them. The priority should therefore be effective regulation rather than further expansion.

Thermal spas, wellness treatments and cultural tourism may generate more income without producing the same concentration of visitors as mass-market skiing and shopping. Improved bus services could also reduce congestion in the capital and make established rural attractions more accessible. I am less convinced by the supposed advantages of international sporting events. They attract attention for a few days, but their long-term economic impact is often exaggerated. Public funds would be better spent preserving natural areas, maintaining historic churches and ensuring that tourism providers comply fully with environmental standards.

Commentator C

Hosting high-profile sporting events can bring Andorra benefits that are not immediately visible in visitor statistics. A World Cup final, for example, gives the country international recognition and may justify improvements to transport and sporting facilities that residents can continue to use.

Such events should not, however, become an excuse for unrestricted construction on mountain slopes. In my view, the central issue is not how to attract ever larger numbers of people but how to manage those who already come. Clear limits on development, credible environmental monitoring and closer cooperation with local authorities are essential. Andorra has already devoted considerable attention to shopping, so future campaigns should highlight its landscapes, cultural heritage and outdoor activities. A broader tourism offer would help reduce seasonal dependence, but diversification will only be sustainable if strict safeguards are introduced before new projects receive approval.

Commentator D

There is considerable potential in promoting Andorra’s hiking trails, churches and mountain communities, but improved accessibility is not automatically beneficial. Some remote areas remain attractive precisely because they have escaped intensive development. New roads or frequent transport services could expose fragile locations to visitor numbers they are not equipped to manage.

Decisions about promotion should therefore be led by the communities affected rather than by a central organisation. Local residents are more likely to understand which traditions and environments require protection. I also doubt that major sporting competitions create a lasting connection between visitors and the country: international attention tends to disappear once an event has ended. Carefully designed publicity can have a longer-term impact, but only when it tells authentic local stories instead of relying on temporary spectacles. Tourism development should empower communities, not merely use their surroundings as material for a national advertising campaign.

Questions:

Which commentator...

37. shares Commentator A’s opinion about the potential value of international sporting events?

38. expresses a different view from Commentator B regarding improved access to rural attractions?

39. shares Commentator C’s view that Andorra should focus on managing its current visitors rather than attracting greater numbers?

40. shares Commentator D’s doubts about the lasting benefits of international sporting events?

Beyond the Opening Speech

Part 5: Multiple choice

You are going to read an article about negotiations at a Model United Nations conference. For questions 31–36, choose the answer (A, B, C or D) which you think fits best according to the text.

Beyond the Opening Speech

When students attend their first Model United Nations conference, they often assume that success depends primarily on delivering an impressive opening speech. This belief is understandable. Speeches are delivered in public, formally assessed and frequently remembered long after a committee session has ended. Yet the most influential work may occur away from the microphones, when delegates compare priorities, test possible compromises and quietly rewrite proposals. Public speaking matters, but it is rarely enough to turn a controversial idea into an acceptable resolution.

This became clear during a recent simulation of the United Nations Security Council. The committee was considering how the international community should respond to a humanitarian crisis in which thousands of civilians had experienced displacement. In her opening speech, the delegate representing a small European state declared that her country was deeply concerned about the situation. She called upon all parties to fully comply with international humanitarian law and demanded unhindered access for aid organisations. Her language was polished and appropriately diplomatic. Although the speech established her delegation’s priorities, it did little to alter the positions already adopted by the other participants.

The real negotiations began during the first period of informal consultations. Most delegations accepted the need to protect civilians, but there was considerable disagreement over how violations should be investigated. One group wanted the resolution to establish a powerful international body capable of identifying those responsible for abuses. Others feared that such a body might publish accusations before the available evidence had been independently verified. They were prepared to support monitoring, provided that the proposed mechanism remained impartial and respected national sovereignty.

At first, the two positions appeared incompatible. However, a group of delegates suggested replacing the demand for an investigative body with a proposal for an independent monitoring mechanism. This mechanism would be authorised to document alleged violations and submit its findings to the Security Council. Crucially, it would not immediately declare which individuals or governments were responsible. Some participants criticised the revised language for being less forceful. Its supporters, however, argued that it did not abandon accountability; it merely deferred judgement until credible evidence had been collected.

As the negotiations continued, several delegations offered conditional support. One country was willing to approve the monitoring mechanism only if regional organisations participated in selecting the observers. Another refused to support automatic sanctions but offered funding for professional training and evidence collection. To inexperienced participants, these firm limits initially seemed unhelpful. In reality, they gave the committee valuable information. Once delegates understood which measures their counterparts genuinely could not accept, they stopped wasting time on proposals that had no realistic prospect of gaining sufficient support.

The committee chair also played a less visible but important role. Chairs are expected to remain impartial and cannot dictate the content of a resolution. Nevertheless, they influence the pace and organisation of debate. On this occasion, the chair resisted pressure to call an early vote and instead gave the delegates additional time to examine the revised proposal. This decision frustrated those who wanted a rapid conclusion, but it prevented the committee from approving a superficially impressive document that concealed unresolved disagreements.

The resolution that was eventually adopted was less dramatic than the original proposal. It did not impose immediate sanctions or create an institution with extensive legal powers. It did, however, establish procedures for selecting independent observers, documenting violations and presenting evidence. It also included a timetable for reviewing the mechanism’s effectiveness. These provisions made the resolution more likely to be implemented because the responsibilities of the participating organisations had been clearly defined.

The experience illustrates an aspect of diplomacy that is easily overlooked. Successful negotiation does not always produce the strongest possible wording. Sometimes it requires delegates to distinguish between language that merely sounds decisive and measures that states are actually prepared to carry out. Ambiguity can occasionally help opposing sides identify common ground, although excessive vagueness may weaken accountability. The challenge lies in judging which details must be settled immediately and which can be addressed once cooperation has been established. In this respect, the quiet rewriting of a single clause may achieve more than the most memorable speech of the entire conference.

Questions:

31. What is the main point made by the writer in the first paragraph?

A. Opening speeches should no longer be formally assessed at MUN conferences.

B. Effective diplomacy often depends on negotiations that receive little public attention.

C. New delegates generally lack the confidence required to speak in public.

D. Committee resolutions are normally written before formal speeches are delivered.

32. Why does the writer describe the small state’s opening speech?

A. to demonstrate that the delegate had misunderstood her country’s position

B. to criticise the delegate for using language that was unnecessarily emotional

C. to show why smaller countries tend to influence humanitarian negotiations

D. to contrast the speech’s public quality with its limited effect on other delegations

33. What does the phrase “it merely deferred judgement” indicate about the revised proposal?

A. It allowed evidence to be collected before responsibility was formally assigned.

B. It transferred responsibility for the investigation to regional governments.

C. It prevented the Security Council from examining the observers’ findings.

D. It postponed the entire monitoring process until the conflict had ended.

34. What did the delegates discover about the firm limits established by certain countries?

A. They were mainly intended to delay the committee’s final vote.

B. They demonstrated that those countries were unwilling to compromise.

C. They provided useful information for developing a realistic agreement.

D. They were based on a misunderstanding of the proposed mechanism.

35. According to the writer, what was the result of the chair’s decision to delay the vote?

A. The most controversial sections were removed from the resolution.

B. The committee avoided approving an agreement that was only superficially satisfactory.

C. Several delegations were given permission to change their national positions.

D. The chair became directly involved in writing the resolution’s provisions.

36. What is the writer’s assessment of the resolution that was finally adopted?

A. It placed too much emphasis on monitoring and not enough on humanitarian aid.

B. It was deliberately vague because the delegates had failed to resolve their differences.

C. It was unlikely to promote accountability because it did not include sanctions.

D. It was less ambitious than the original proposal but had a better chance of being implemented.

Managing Tourism in Andorra

Part 3: Word formation

For questions 17–24, read the text below. Use the word given in capitals at the end of some of the lines to form a word that fits in the gap in the same line. There is an example at the beginning (0).

Managing Tourism in Andorra

Example:

0. mountainous

Andorra’s (0) __________ landscape has made the country an increasingly popular destination for visitors seeking outdoor activities and impressive natural scenery.

MOUNTAIN

Its hiking trails offer access to (17) __________ landscapes, while its ski resorts attract thousands of visitors to the country’s slopes every winter.

BREATHE

Andorra la Vella also serves as a major (18) __________ hub, drawing tourists interested in shopping as well as culture and recreation.

COMMERCE

Nevertheless, the highly (19) __________ nature of the tourism industry presents certain challenges. Visitor numbers rise sharply during the skiing season but may fall considerably at other times of the year.

SEASON

For this reason, the long-term (20) __________ of the sector cannot depend exclusively on winter sports. Thermal spas, wellness treatments and summer hiking programmes can help attract visitors throughout the year.

SUSTAIN

Improving the (21) __________ of rural attractions through reliable public transport could also encourage tourists to explore areas beyond the capital.

ACCESS

However, tourism development must be balanced with the (22) __________ of the country’s natural and cultural heritage, including its Romanesque-style churches.

PRESERVE

Tourism providers therefore have a particular (23) __________ to ensure that commercial growth does not damage local communities or mountain environments.

RESPONSIBLE

Greater economic (24) __________ would ultimately make Andorra less dependent on a single industry while allowing tourism to remain an important source of national income.

DIVERSE

How Andorra has preserved its Independence

Part 2: Open cloze

For questions 9–16, read the text below and think of the word which best fits each gap. Use only one word in each gap. There is an example at the beginning (0).

How Andorra has preserved its Independence

Example:

0. anything

Despite its modest size, Andorra has a history that is (0) _____ but straightforward. Situated in the Pyrenees between France and Spain, the country has preserved its independence for centuries, largely because its leaders learned to balance the interests of more powerful neighbours.

Rather (9) _____ being governed by a single ruler, Andorra developed a co-principality in which authority was traditionally shared (10) _____ the French head of state and the Bishop of Urgell. This unusual arrangement originated in a medieval agreement and helps explain (11) _____ neither neighbouring country gained complete control of the territory.

At times when conflict broke out elsewhere in Europe, Andorra generally avoided being drawn (12) _____ major military confrontations. This did not mean that the country remained entirely untouched (13) _____ external events. Political squabbling between regional powers occasionally threatened its stability, and historians have sometimes struggled to nail (14) _____ exactly how particular disputes were resolved.

Had Andorra’s rulers been less willing to negotiate, the country might (15) _____ undergone far greater political change. Instead, compromise allowed its institutions to survive. Only by carefully balancing competing interests was Andorra (16) _____ to maintain a distinctive political identity while adapting to the modern world.

From Resolution to Action

Part 1: Multiple-choice cloze

For questions 1–8, read the text below and decide which answer (A, B, C or D) best fits each gap. There is an example at the beginning (0).

Example:

0

A. meeting

B. reaching

C. achieving

D. arriving

Answer: C

From Resolution to Action

For questions 1–8, read the text below and decide which answer (A, B, C or D) best fits each gap. There is an example at the beginning (0).

The adoption of a United Nations resolution often attracts considerable attention. Nevertheless, passing a resolution does not necessarily mean that it will (0) _____ its objectives. Its ultimate impact depends on whether member states are willing to turn diplomatic commitments into practical measures.

At the outset, delegations must nail down precisely what has been agreed. Otherwise, broadly worded commitments may leave (1) _____ room for disagreement over how they should be interpreted. When armed conflict breaks out or intensifies, the Security Council may call upon the parties involved to fully comply with international humanitarian law. However, formal appeals alone rarely (2) _____ about lasting change.

Credible mechanisms are therefore required to document violations and promote accountability. Although independent observers are expected to remain impartial, their presence in conflict zones cannot be (3) _____ for granted. Governments may offer conditional support, provided that the observers’ activities are subject to restrictions. Such conditions can prevent investigators from obtaining unhindered access to displaced communities.

During negotiations, diplomats must identify common ground without (4) _____ sight of the firm limits established by their own delegations. Effective mediation also requires representatives to acknowledge legitimate concerns before (5) _____ competing claims more carefully.

Regional alliances can prove instrumental in (6) _____ political momentum and encouraging cooperation. Nevertheless, solidarity should not be (7) _____ with complete agreement: states may support the same overall goal while differing substantially over the means of achieving it. Ultimately, successful implementation depends on whether diplomatic promises are translated (8) _____ coordinated action.

Options:

1

A. considerable

B. spacious

C. widespread

D. extended

2

A. bring

B. set

C. take

D. put

3

A. allowed

B. accepted

C. held

D. taken

4

A. dropping

B. losing

C. missing

D. passing

5

A. watching
B. noticing
C. examining
D. looking

6

A. sustaining

B. retaining

C. preserving

D. continuing

7

A. matched

B. balanced

C. likened

D. equated

8

A. for

B. into

C. towards

D. through