How Andorra Survived

Part 7: Gapped text

You are going to read an article about the historical development of Andorra. Six extracts have been removed from the text. Choose from extracts A–G the one which fits each gap (41–46). There is one extra extract which you do not need to use.

How Andorra Survived

At first sight, Andorra’s continued existence seems historically improbable. The country occupies a small mountainous territory between France and Spain, two states whose rulers repeatedly expanded their influence across Europe. Andorra possessed neither a powerful army nor abundant natural resources with which to defend itself. Nevertheless, it avoided being absorbed by either neighbour and eventually developed into a modern independent state.

The origins of this unusual political situation are difficult to nail down. Medieval documents associate the territory with several rulers, religious institutions and local families. Some accounts emphasise grants supposedly made during the reign of Charlemagne, whereas others focus on agreements concluded much later. The surviving evidence is incomplete and sometimes allows for several interpretations. (41) ______ By the late thirteenth century, neither side had been able to establish complete control. Continued squabbling threatened the stability of the region, making a negotiated solution increasingly necessary.

The opposing authorities eventually concluded two agreements known as the pareatges. These recognised that authority would be shared by the Bishop of Urgell and the Count of Foix. Each co-prince received certain rights, while neither was permitted to govern the territory independently. (42) ______ That political framework proved remarkably durable. Over time, the French rights passed from the Count of Foix to the French Crown. After the French Revolution, they eventually became associated with the French head of state.

Consequently, Andorra’s present co-princes are the Bishop of Urgell and the President of France—an arrangement that links a medieval religious office with a modern republic. This institutional continuity is frequently presented as evidence that Andorra has remained largely unchanged for centuries. (43) ______ Even so, the basic principle of shared authority survived. It provided a stable political foundation while allowing the country’s social and economic organisation to evolve gradually.

One advantage of the co-principality was that it discouraged either neighbouring power from simply taking possession of the territory. Any attempt to pinch Andorran land risked provoking the other co-prince. The arrangement therefore provided the valleys with a degree of protection that their inhabitants could not have secured through military strength alone. (44) ______ Nevertheless, restraint alone did not guarantee Andorra’s survival. Its leaders also had to respond carefully to changes taking place beyond the Pyrenees.

Treaties, revolutions and changes of government could alter the position of one of the co-princes. Andorran representatives therefore became skilled at reaffirming old agreements while avoiding actions that might cause a neighbouring state to question the country’s special status.

Modernity created a different kind of challenge. For centuries, geographical isolation had limited Andorra’s economic development as well as protecting it from external interference. Once improved roads connected the valleys more closely to France and Spain, the country could no longer depend on isolation as its principal defence. (45) ______ These developments brought prosperity, but they also made political reform increasingly necessary. The institutions inherited from the medieval period were no longer sufficient for a society whose population, international connections and economy had expanded considerably.

In 1993, voters approved a constitution that established Andorra as a sovereign parliamentary democracy. The constitution defined the powers of the government and legislature while preserving the co-princes as joint heads of state. In the same year, Andorra joined the United Nations and gained wider international recognition. (46) ______ Andorra’s survival cannot therefore be attributed to a single ruler, treaty or geographical advantage.

Instead, its continued independence resulted from the interaction of difficult terrain, competing external powers, carefully maintained agreements and a willingness to undergo political change when older institutions were no longer sufficient. What began as a practical medieval compromise gradually became the foundation of a modern state.

Missing extracts

A

In reality, everyday life and political participation changed considerably. For much of its history, Andorra was a poor rural society, and its institutions were far less democratic than they are today.

B

This transformation modernised the state without completely rejecting its historical foundations. The co-princes retained a largely ceremonial role, while political authority became centred on elected institutions.

C

This uncertainty has encouraged the creation of attractive legends. What can be established, however, is that the Bishop of Urgell and the lords controlling neighbouring territories maintained competing claims over the valleys.

D

During the twentieth century, the population expanded and the economy underwent a dramatic transformation. Tourism, banking and commerce replaced agriculture as the principal sources of income.

E

The Pyrenees undoubtedly made invasion and administration more difficult. However, many other isolated European territories were incorporated into larger states despite possessing equally formidable natural defences.

F

The settlement was primarily a practical solution to a local dispute. By obliging both sides to cooperate, it prevented either co-prince from becoming the territory’s sole ruler.

G

This protection was reinforced by a tradition of neutrality. When conflicts broke out in surrounding regions, Andorra generally avoided direct involvement because it could neither maintain a large army nor conscript enough men to resist a major power.